Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali

The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali are 194 Indian sūtras (aphorisms) that constitute the foundational text of Rāja Yoga. Yoga is one of the six orthodox āstika schools of Hindu philosophy, and Rāja Yoga is the highest (or royal) practice.[1][2]

Various authorities attribute the compilation to Patañjali.

Contents

Compilation and dating

Radhakrishnan and Moore attribute the text to Patañjali, dating it as 2nd century BCE, during the Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE).[3] Scholars such as S.N. Dasgupta,[4] claim this is the same Patañjali who authored the Mahabhasya, a treatise on Sanskrit grammar.[5] However, Indologist Axel Michaels disagrees that the work was written by Patañjali, characterizing it instead as a collection of fragments and traditions of texts stemming from the second or third century.[6] Gavin Flood cites an even wider period of composition, between 100 BCE and 500 CE.[7]

Philosophical roots and influences

In the Yoga Sutras, Patañjali prescribes adherence to eight "limbs" or steps (the sum of which constitute "Ashtanga Yoga", the title of the second chapter) to quiet one's mind and achieve kaivalya. The Yoga Sutras form the theoretical and philosophical basis of Raja Yoga, and are considered to be the most organized and complete definition of that discipline. The Sutras not only provide yoga with a thorough and consistent philosophical basis, they also clarify many important esoteric concepts which are common to all traditions of Indian thought, such as karma.

The Yoga Sutras are built on a foundation of Samkhya philosophy, an orthodox (Astika) Hindu system of dualism, and are generally seen as the practice while Samkhya is the theory. The Bhagavad Gita, one of the chief scriptures of Hinduism, is considered to be based on this Samkhya-Yoga system.[8][9] These are thought to be two of the many schools of philosophy that originated over the centuries that had common mystical roots derived from the early Vedic and Indus-Saraswati period. The orthodox Hindu philosophies of Samkhya, Yoga, Vedanta, as well as the non-orthodox Nastika systems of Jainism and Buddhism can all be seen as representing one stream of spiritual activity in Ancient India, in contrast to the Bhakti traditions and Vedic ritualism which were also prevalent at the same time. The Vedanta-Sramana traditions, Idol worship and Vedic rituals can be identified with the Jnana marga, Bhakti marga and the Karma marga respectively that are outlined in the Bhagavad Gita.

In addition to the prominent presence of features of popular Hinduism, there is evidence for the Yoga sutras having incorporated the teachings of other Indian religious systems prevalent at the time, and in turn influenced their future development. According to some authors, the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali show influences from Buddhist sources like the Pāli Canon and the Abhidharma.[10][11] The samadhi techniques, for instance, are similar to the jhanas found in the Pali Canon, and the division of steps into Eight is reminiscent of the Buddha's teachings of the Eightfold path.[12][13] Similarly, the five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali bear considerable resemblance to the Mahavrata of Jainism.[14][15] Three teachings closely associated with Jainism also make an appearance in Yoga: the doctrine of "colors" in karma (lesya); the Telos of isolation (kevala in Jainism and Kaivalyam in Yoga); and the practice of non-violence (ahimsa).[16]

Usage

Although Patañjali's work does not cover the many types of Yogic practices that have become prevalent, its succinct form and availability caused it to be pressed into service by a variety of schools of Yogic thought.[17]

The Sutras, with commentaries, have been published by a number of successful teachers of Yoga, as well as by academicians seeking to clarify issues of textual variation. There are also other versions from a variety of sources available on the Internet. The many versions display a wide variation, particularly in translation. The text has not been submitted in its entirety to any rigorous textual analysis, and the contextual meaning of many of the Sanskrit words and phrases remains a matter of some dispute.[18]

Yoga Sutras of Patañjali

Patañjali divided his Yoga Sutras into 4 chapters or books (Sanskrit pada), containing in all 196 aphorisms, divided as follows:

Samadhi refers to a blissful state where the yogi is absorbed into the One. The author describes yoga and then the nature and the means to attaining samādhi. This chapter contains the famous definitional verse: "Yogaś citta-vritti-nirodhaḥ" ("Yoga is the restraint of mental modifications"[19]).
Sadhana is the Sanskrit word for "practice" or "discipline". Here the author outlines two forms of Yoga: Kriya Yoga (Action Yoga) and Ashtanga Yoga (Eightfold or Eightlimbed Yoga).
Kriya yoga, sometimes called Karma Yoga, is also expounded in Chapter 3 of the Bhagavad Gita, where Arjuna is encouraged by Krishna to act without attachment to the results or fruit of action and activity. It is the yoga of selfless action and service.
Ashtanga Yoga describes the eight limbs that together constitute Raja Yoga.
Vibhuti is the Sanskrit word for "power" or "manifestation". 'Supra-normal powers' (Sanskrit: siddhi) are acquired by the practice of yoga. The temptation of these powers should be avoided and the attention should be fixed only on liberation.
Kaivalya literally means "isolation", but as used in the Sutras stands for emancipation, liberation and used interchangeably with moksha (liberation), which is the goal of Yoga. The Kaivalya Pada describes the process of liberation and the reality of the transcendental ego.

The eight limbs of Yoga

The Ashtanga or eight "limbs" prescribed in the second pada of the Yoga Sutras are: Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi.

According to I. K. Taimni,[note 1][20] the cumulative and collective mastery of the eight limbs aids one in performing Samadhi efficiently. Samadhi then becomes the main tool used by the yogi to descend through the various layers of consciousness towards the very center of consciousness. Mastery of the eight limbs is only the prerequisite to begin the descent through consciousness to its center (bhindu or laya center). The descent through consciousness involves mastery of samskaras and overcoming the kleshas, and constitutes an effort of will perhaps greater than mastery of the eight limbs. It is through the descent of consciousness to its center, and passage through this center by dharma mega samadhi that the Atman is realized and Kaivalya is achieved. Kaivalya is related to "isolation" not because a relative being becomes isolated from all other relative beings, but because consciousness becomes its essential nature: the wholeness and fullness of the Absolute, of which there is only one. There is no other next to the Absolute; hence it is isolated. This state is the fullness, completeness, and total freedom of being (svatantra). In this state Atman is Brahman. Thus, the eight "limbs" are the means to samadhi, and samadhi is the means to the end which is Kaivalya.

Ashtanga yoga consists of the following limbs: The first five are called external aids to Yoga (bahiranga sadhana)

  • Ahimsa: non-violence, inflicting no injury or harm to others or even to one's own self, it goes as far as nonviolence in thought, word and deed.
  • Satya: truth in word and thought.
  • Asteya: non-covetousness, to the extent that one should not even desire something that is his own.
  • Brahmacharya: abstain from sexual intercourse; celibacy in case of unmarried people and monogamy in case of married people. Even this to the extent that one should not possess any sexual thoughts towards any other man or woman except one's own spouse. It is common to associate Brahmacharya with celibacy.
  • Aparigraha: non-possessiveness
  • Shaucha: cleanliness of body and mind.
  • Santosha: satisfaction; satisfied with what one has.
  • Tapas: austerity and associated observances for body discipline and thereby mental control.
  • Svadhyaya: study of the Vedic scriptures to know about God and the soul, which leads to introspection on a greater awakening to the soul and God within,
  • Ishvarapranidhana: surrender to (or worship of) God.

The last three levels are called internal aids to Yoga (antaranga sadhana)

Combined simultaneous practice of Dhāraṇā, Dhyāna and Samādhi is referred to as Samyama and is considered a tool of achieving various perfections, or Siddhis. But as stated above, siddhis are but distractions from Kaivalaya and are to be discouraged. Siddhis are but Maya. The purpose of using samadhi is not to gain siddhis but to achieve Kaivalya.

Commentaries

Traditional Commentary: Yogabhashya

The Yogabhashya is a commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali which has been attributed in the discourse of the tradition to Vyasa. The Yogabhashya states that 'yoga' in the Yoga Sutra has the meaning of 'samadhi'. Shankara in his commentary, the Vivarana, confirms the interpretation of yogah samadhih (YBh. I.1): 'yoga' in Patañjali's sutra has the meaning of 'rest'.[21] The interpretation of the word 'yoga' as union is the result of later, external influences that include the bhakti movement, Vedanta and Kashmiri Sivaism.

Ganganath Jha (1907) rendered a version of the Yoga Sutras with the Yogabhashya attributed to Vyasa into English in its entirety.[22] This version of Jha's also include notes drawn from Vācaspati Miśra's Tattvavaiśāradī amongst other important texts in the Yoga commentarial tradition. Even though Vyasa is credited with the Yogabhashya, many hold its authorship to Vyasa impossible, particularly if Vyasa's immortality is not considered.

Other Commentaries

Relying on his own experience of a realized Kriya yogi, Shri Shailendra Sharma translated Yoga Sutras from Sanskrit to Hindi and made a yogic commentary on it. [23]

Non-dharmic contemporary response

There has recently been considerable debate in non-dharmic contexts regarding the philosophical debt that Yoga owes to the Hindu civilizational milieu that it arose in. Controversy has arisen from the claims by Christian and Muslim religious leaders that the practice of Yoga violates the core tenets of Christianity and Islam owing to its unmistakably Hindu content.[24][25][26][27][28] This was attempted to be overcome by promoting Yoga as divorced from Hindu spirituality, which in turn led to protests from Hindu and Indian groups.[29]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Taimni's commentary on Patañjali's Yoga Sutras

Notes

  1. ^ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and pp. 453-487.
  2. ^ For a brief overview of the Yoga school of philosophy see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
  3. ^ For attribution to Patañjali and dating of 2nd c. BCE see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, p. 453.
  4. ^ Dasgupta, Surendranath. Yoga-As Philosophy and Religion Port Washington: Kennikat Press, 1924
  5. ^ For the philosophical nature of Sanskrit grammarian thought see: Lata, Bidyut (editor); Panini to Patañjali: A Grammatical March. New Delhi, 2004.
  6. ^ For the Yoga Sutras as a collection dating to second or third century, see: Michaels, p. 267.
  7. ^ For dating between 100 BCE and 500 CE see: Flood (1996), page 96.
  8. ^ http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/bhagavad/bhagavad_03.html
  9. ^ http://www.asitis.com/6/
  10. ^ Karel Werner, The Yogi and the Mystic. Routledge 1994, page 27.
  11. ^ Robert Thurman, "The Central Philosophy of Tibet. Princeton University Press, 1984, page 34.
  12. ^ David, John (1914). The Yoga System of Patañjali with commentary Yogabhashya attributed to Veda Vyasa and Tattva Vaicharadi by Vacaspati Misra. Harvard University Press. http://books.google.com/?id=hvsmdzI1iksC. 
  13. ^ For works on the Buddhist influence on the Yoga Sutras: Eliade, M. Le Yoga, Immortalité et Liberté, Payot, 1954. and Miller Stoler, Barbara. Yoga Discipline of Freedom. The Yoga Sutra attributed to Patañjali. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995
  14. ^ Zydenbos, Robert. Jainism Today and Its Future. München: Manya Verlag, (2006) p.66
  15. ^ A History of Yoga By Vivian Worthington (1982) Routledge ISBN 071009258X p. 29
  16. ^ Christopher Chapple (2008) Yoga and the Luminous: Patañjali's Spiritual Path to Freedom New York: SUNY Press, ISBN 0978-0-7914-7475-4 p. 110
  17. ^ For an overview of the scope of earlier commentaries: Complete Commentary by Sankara on the Yoga Sutras ISBN 0-7103-0277-0
  18. ^ Christopher Key Chapple; Reading Patañjali without Vyasa: A Critique of Four Yoga Sutra Passages, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 62, No. 1 (Spring, 1994), pp. 85-105
  19. ^ Radhakrishnan and Moore, p.454
  20. ^ I.K. Taimni, The Science of Yoga: The Yoga-Sutras of Patañjali in Sanskrit , ISBN 978-8170592112
  21. ^ Sankaracarya; Patañjali; T. S. Rukmani; Vyasa. Yogasutrabhasyavivarana of Sankara: Vivarana Text with English Translation, and Critical Notes along with Text and English Translation of Patañjali's Yogasutras and Vyasabhasya. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 2001. ISBN 10: 8121509084.
  22. ^ Ganganatha Jha (translator) (1907). The Yoga Darśana: The Sutras of Patañjali with the Bhāṣya of Vyāsa. With notes from Vācaspati Miśra's Tattvavaiśāradī, Vijnana Bhiksu's Yogavartika and Bhoja's Rajamartanda. Rajaram Tukaram Tatya: Bombay Theosophical Publication Fund. Source: [1] (accessed: January 16, 2011)
  23. ^ English translation
  24. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7743312.stm
  25. ^ http://www.islamweb.net/emainpage/index.php?page=showfatwa&Option=FatwaId&Id=85297
  26. ^ http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1874651,00.html
  27. ^ http://www.cbn.com/health/fitness/bagby_yoga-alternative.aspx
  28. ^ http://content.usatoday.com/communities/Religion/post/2010/09/yoga-christian-mohler-palin/1
  29. ^ http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/28/nyregion/28yoga.html?pagewanted=all

References

Further reading

External links

Raja Yoga
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali  · Eight Limbs: (1) Yama (2) Niyama (3) Āsana (4) Pranayama (5) Pratyahara (6) Dhāraṇā (7) Dhyāna (8) Samādhi
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